Condom Use and its Myths Essay Example for Free

Condom Use and its Myths Essay In the first summary of a peer reviewed article, an article was found called Sexual Coercion, Verbal Aggression, and Condom Use Consistency among College Students. The journal in which this article was found is Journal of American College Health, Vol. 59, No. 4 pp.273-280. The greater hypothesis of this article was the staggering coalition of sexual coercion, which is the forcefulness of people to use peer pressure, alcohol, or other measures to get their sexual desires met. The intent of the article was also very strong with the condom use numbers amongst its research group. Which, this author finds to be the important statistic and what the final draft will be based upon. The research that was conducted in the article was from a mid-sized college in the south eastern United Sates. The authors and researchers got together 600 undergraduate students and asked them questions based on the relative research. Questions like, I insulted or swore at my partner?, I used insults to make my partner have sex, I know that if my partner is drunk enough they won’t make me use a condom, etc. A large number of questions and evidence were conducted; however the staggering number was the condom use numbers from freshman-senior. The number declined at a rapid rate. Proving what I was trying to hypothesize†¦The older you get, the less condoms are used. As previously stated 600 people were chosen at random, 150 freshmen, 150 sophomores, 150 juniors, and 150 seniors. They were all emailed the survey, and only 148, roughly 24.7 completed them. This makes the research style survey or questionnaire. The staggering result from the research was that 30.4% of the surveyed students used condoms all the time, where 26.7% reported never using any means of protection. The authors of the article offer a few hypotheses about their research, which are â€Å"Sexually Active Students Who Report Being Victims of Sexual Coercion Will Be Less Likely to Use Condoms Consistently† (Fair, Vanyur, 2011). â€Å"Sexually Active Students Who Report Being Victims of Verbal Aggression Will Be Less Likely to Use Condoms Consistently† (Fair, Vanyur, 2011). â€Å" Alcohol Use Will Be Associated With Episodes of Sexual Coercion and Verbal Aggression† (Fair, Vanyur, 2011). â€Å"Sexually Active Students Who Report Using Alcohol Before or During Abusive Episodes Will Be Less Likely to Use Condoms Consistently† (Fair, Vanyur, 2011). The second of our articles if from the world of the â€Å"Google leavened† media, and the source for our article is Reuters. In this article author Julie Steenhuysen describes the current numbers of sexually active teens to their adult counterparts, and their condom use statistics. When the article starts with, â€Å"U.S. teens are not as reckless as some people might think when it comes to sex, and they are much more likely to use condoms than people over 40, according to a survey released on Monday that could help guide public health policy† ( Steenheysun, J. 2006). it has to be good. The research used in this article is from sex researchers at Indiana University and paid for by Trojan condom maker Church Dwight Co. At first glance this author didn’t see anything staggering wrong with their choice in researcher, but after some examination and the article lack of tables, or any other information made this author think. Is this data accurate, and who were the constants in the survey pool. Some of the evidence this article gives us is, â€Å"Condom use is higher among black and Hispanic Americans than among whites, and is lowest among people over 40, the nationally representative Internet survey of 5,865 Americans aged 14 to 94 found† (Steenheysun, J. 2006). â€Å"Only 14 percent of 14-year-old boys reported any kind of sexual interaction with a partner in the prior three months, but almost 40 percent of 17-year-old males did†(Steenheysun, J. 2006). â€Å"In this study, somewhere between 70 and 80 percent of adolescents reported condom use at their most recent vaginal intercourse† (Steenheysun, J. 2006). There were other statistics pertaining to our topic but we will leave that at that for now. In this article there were no conclusions or hypothesis about the data, but it is clear that the data (as un researchable as it is) did speak for itself. Indeed there is a correlation between adolescent condom use and that of adults. Scholarly Articles vs. Popular Media In the world of the internet and all other forms of media blasphemy the facts and lack thereof can be very twisted and exposed in ways that make them seem more legitimate. While in reality most of the articles and sources found in popular media are just words with no backing vocals. Both of the articles had similar information; however the articles differ immensely on how they present there evidence and the facts themselves.

Language Learning Strategy Instruction Education Essay

Language Learning Strategy Instruction Education Essay Language learning strategies are the conscious thoughts and actions taken by learners to achieve a learning goal (Chamot, 2004). On the other hand, Language Learning Strategy Instruction (LLSI) or better known as learner training is a key way for teachers to help learners learn autonomously. It includes two important areas. They are raising learner awareness of how languages are learned and providing them with the skills they need to do it (Logan Moore, 2004). This article provides an overview of language learning strategies instruction and discusses the definitions, importance, past and recent research, types of language learning strategies instructions, employing language learning strategies into their daily language classroom and models of language learning strategy instruction. Keywords: language learning, definitions, importance, research. types, models Introduction Language learning strategies are employed by learners to complete listening, vocabulary, speaking, reading, and writing activities presented in language lessons. When a task has to be completed or a problem need to be solved, language learners will use metacognitive, cognitive or social/affective strategies that they possess to attend to the language learning activity (Oxford, 1990). While experienced language learners can approach language learning problems in a systematic way and are successful in selecting appropriate strategies to complete a language-learning task, novices may be less efficient at selecting and using strategies to task (OMalley Chamot, 1995). Irrespective of language learning experiences, both groups of learners will need instruction on how to use strategies efficiently to develop their language learning and language performance (Wenden, 1987, OMalley Chamot, 1995, Cohen, 1998,). One way to guide learners towards the effective use of learning strategies is to i ncorporate Language Learning Strategy Instruction into daily language lessons (Kinoshita, 2003). This article addresses the following questions: What are the definitions of language learning strategy instruction or LLSI? What does past and present research say about language learning strategies instruction? What are the types of language learning strategy instruction? What are the models of LLSI? How to integrate LLSI into a language classroom? Definition of Language Learning Strategies Instruction Language Learning Strategy Instruction (LLSI) is also known as strategy training, learner training, learning to learn training, learner methodology training and methodological initiation for learners (Oxford 1990). Language learning strategy instructions are the initiation, structuring and control of the singular individual steps as part of the whole language learning process. In other words, language learning strategies instruction is the operationalization and implementation of strategies to improve the progress in developing language skills (Green Oxford 1995). LLSI are also procedures that facilitate a learning task. Strategies are most often conscious and goal-driven, especially in the beginning stages of tackling an unfamiliar language task. Once a learning strategy becomes familiar through repeated use, it may be used with some automaticity, but most learners will, if required, be able to call the strategy to conscious awareness (Chamot 2005). According to some scholars, LLSI is a key way for teachers to help learners learn autonomously. It includes two important areas. These are raising learner awareness of how languages are learned and providing them with the skills they need to do it (Logan Moore 2003). Tudor (1996) describes LLSI as the process by which learners are helped to deepen their understanding of the nature of language learning and to acquire the knowledge and skills they need in order to pursue their learning goals in an informal and self-directed manner. The Importance of LLSI Research shows that learners who receive LLSI or strategy training generally learn better than those who do not, and that certain techniques for such training are more beneficial than others (Oxford 1990). Lee (1995) in her study pointed out that second language learner can become more autonomous in the language learning process. The results not only showed that students gained better final exam grades than mid term exam grades but also confirmed the previous studies by OMalley et al (1985b). Her findings also revealed that language learning strategies instruction for second language learner is an efficient means for helping college students at the beginning level. With strategy training, students can learn how to study a second language, improve their learning and language skills, monitor and evaluate their performance, and become more aware of what helps them learn the language they are studying (Cohen 2000). By examining the strategies used by second language learners during the language learning process, we gain insights into the metacognitive, cognitive, social, and affective processes involved in language learning. Besides, less successful language learners can be taught new strategies, thus helping them become better language learners (Grenfell Harris, 1999). Research on Learning Strategies Instructions Research on language learning strategy instruction has been interested in verifying the effectiveness of particular strategy training. Researchers have experimented with instructing language learners to use selected learning strategies as a way to improve language performance (Kinoshita, 2003). Cohen and Aphek (1980) trained learners of Hebrew on how to recall new words by using paired associations and found that learners perform better in recalling tasks when they form associations (Ellis, 2002). In a study by Weinstein (1978), students in the ninth grade were trained to use a variety of strategies and apply them to reading comprehension and memory tasks. The positive results showed that students trained in elaboration strategies significantly outperformed the students who received no training (OMalley Chamot, 1995). Wenden (1987) describes that providing students with a checklist of criteria to self-evaluate their oral production resulted in successful use of self-evaluation as a learning strategy. The consensus of these investigations and others (Bialystok 1983; Gagne 1985; Sano 1999; Dadour 1996) tell us that language learning strategies are teachable and training language learners to use selected learning strategies can lead to positive effects on task performance in the language learning process. Research on strategy instruction has also investigated the instructional sequences used by language instructors to implement strategy instruction into foreign language lessons. One of the research interests of Chamot et al. (1988) was to discover how three regular classroom teachers integrated strategy instruction into their Spanish and Russian foreign language class activities. The results showed that although each participating instructor had an individual way of providing learning strategy instruction (OMalley Chamot, 1995), all three instructors opted for direct instruction (informing students of the purpose and value of strategies) and followed a structured sequence of introducing, practicing, reinforcing and evaluating strategy use each language activity (Kinoshita, 2003). Research by Robbins (1996) and Grunewald (1999) provides insights into instructional sequences and teaching approaches. Robbins (1996) renders a qualitative description of the instructional sequence used to implement strategy instruction at two universities in Kyoto, Japan. As a framework for strategy instruction, he used the Problem-Solving Process Model. Students were instructed to use the model to plan, monitor, use and evaluate strategies as they attended to language learning tasks. The instructional sequence for each lesson are modeling, explaining, encouraging, and prompting the use of strategies. Grunewalds action research (1999) shows evidence of how strategies instruction can been integrated into foreign language lessons. Grunewald developed an optional supplementary system of useful language learning techniques or strategies. Supplementary learning strategies were identified for each language skill presented in the course book and direct instruction of these language strategies were integrated into the weekly language lessons. The teaching approach used for strategies instruction includes awareness raising, explicit naming of strategies, practice and self-evaluation and monitoring Types of Language Learning Strategies Instruction Language learning strategies instructions can be taught in at least three different ways namely awareness training, one time strategy training and long term strategy training (Oxford, 1990). Awareness training Awareness training is also known as conscious raising or familiarization training. In this situation, participants become aware of the language learning strategies and the way these strategies can help them accomplish various tasks. This training should be fun and motivating so that participants can expand their knowledge of strategies. Participants can be teachers, students or anyone else interested in language learning processes (Oxford 1990). One time strategy training One time strategy training involves learning and practicing one or more strategies with actual learning tasks. This kind of training normally gives the learners information on the value of the strategy, when it can be used, how to use it and how to evaluate the success of the language strategy. This training is suitable for learners who have a need for a particular and targeted strategy that can be taught in one or a few sessions. In general, this strategy is not as valuable as long-term training (Oxford 1990). Long term strategy training Long term strategy training involves learning and practicing strategies with actual language tasks. Students learn the significance of a particular strategy, when and how to use it, how to monitor and evaluate their own performance. Long term training is more prolonged and covers a greater number of strategies. This strategy is most likely to more effective than one time training (Oxford 1990). LLSI Models Research on the learning strategies that second language students generate and strategies that can be taught is of great significance in understanding the operation of cognitive processes during second language acquisition (OMalley Chamot, 1990). Instructional models and materials are helpful in illustrating the ways in which research findings can be converted into practical classroom activities. LLSI Model by OMalley and Chamot OMalley and Chamot (1990) model is based on cognitive theory. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) is designed to develop the academic language skills of limited English proficient students in upper elementary and secondary schools. The theoretical model on which CALLA is based, suggests that language is a complex cognitive skill. It requires extensive practice and feedback in order to operate at an autonomous level. The CALLA lesson plan framework incorporates learning strategy instruction, content area topics, and language development activities. Learning strategy instruction is both direct and embedded. In CALLA, new learning strategies are introduced and familiar ones are practiced (OMalley Chamot 1990). CALLA lessons include both teacher directed and learner centered activities. They specify three types of objectives, namely, content objectives, language objectives, and learning strategy objectives. Each CALLA lesson is divided into five phases: preparation, presentation, practice, and evaluation and expansion activities (refer to Figure 1.1). Theses phases are often recursive and the teacher may wish to go back to earlier phases in order to clarify or provide additional instruction. Preparation Expansion Activities Evaluation Presentation Practice Figure 1.1 LLSI Model by OMalley and Chamot (1999) Preparation In the preparation phase, the teacher finds out , through brainstorming, what students already know about the concepts in the subject area to be presented and practiced, what gaps need to be addressed and how students have been taught to approach a particular type of learning activity. The lessons objectives are explained to students and new vocabulary is developed. The learning strategies most commonly taught in this phase are elaboration, advance organization and selective attention (OMalley Chamot 1990). Presentation In the presentation phase, new information is presented and explained to students in English that is supported by contextual clues such as demonstration and visuals. Teachers make sure that students comprehend the new information so that they will be able to practice it meaningfully in the next phase of the lesson. Some of the learning strategies taught and practiced in this phase are selective attention while listening or reading, self monitoring, inferencing, elaboration, note taking, imagery and questioning for clarifications (OMalley Chamot 1990). Practice The practice phase of the lesson is learner centered. Students engage in hands on activities to practice the new information they were exposed to in the presentation phase. The teacher acts as a facilitator in helping students assimilate the new information and use it in different ways. Cooperative leaning in heterogeneous teams is particularly effective during the practice phase, as students can work together in small groups to clarify their understanding of the information previously presented. The learning strategies in this phase are self monitoring, organizational planning, resourcing, grouping, summarizing, deduction, imagery, auditory representation, elaboration, inferencing, cooperation and questioning for clarification (OMalley Chamot 1990). Evaluation In this phase, students check the level of their performance so that they can gain an understanding of what they have learned and any areas they need to review. Evaluation activities can be individual, cooperative or teacher directed. Learning strategies practiced in the evaluation phase are: self evaluation, elaboration, questioning for clarification, cooperation and self talk (OMalley Chamot 1990. Expansion activities In the expansion phase, students are given a variety of opportunities to think about the new concepts and skills they have learned, integrate them into their existing knowledge frameworks, make real world applications and continue to develop academic language. This phase also provide the opportunity to exercise higher order thinking skills such as inferring new application of a concept, analyzing the components of a learning activity, drawing parallels with other concepts, and evaluating the importance of a concept or a new skill. LLSI Model by Oxford Oxfords eight-step model (refer to Table 1.1) for strategy training focuses on the teaching of learning strategies. It is especially useful for long term strategy training. It can also be adapted for one-time training by selecting specific units. The first five are planning and preparation steps, while the last three involve conducting, evaluating and revising the training. Table 1.1: Strategy Model by Oxford (1990) Determine the learners needs and the time available Select strategies well Consider integration of strategy training Consider motivated issues Prepare materials and activities Conduct completely informed training Evaluate the strategy training Revise the strategy training Step 1: Determine the Learners Needs and the Time Available The initial step in a training program is to consider the needs of the learners and determine the amount of time needed for the activity. Consider first who the learners are and what they need. Are they children, adolescents, college students, graduate students or adults in continuing education? What are their strength and weaknesses? What learning strategies have they been using? Is there a gap between the strategies they have been using and those learners think they have to learn? Consider also how much time learners and learners students have available for strategy training and when learners might do it. Are learners pressed for time or can learners work strategy training in with no trouble? Step 2: Select Strategies Well First, select strategies which are related to the needs and characteristics of learners. Note especially whether there are strong cultural biases in favor or against a particular strategy. If strong biases exist, choose strategies that do not completely contradict what the learners are already doing. Second, chose more than one kind of strategy to teach. Decide the kinds of compatible, mutually supporting strategies that are important for students. Third, choose strategies that are generally useful for most learners and transferable to a variety of language situations and tasks. Fourth, choose strategies that are easy to learn and valuable to the learner. In other words, do not include all easy strategies or all difficult strategies (Oxford 1990). Step 3: Consider Integration of Strategy Training It is most helpful to integrate strategy training with the tasks, objectives, and materials used in the regular language training program. Attempts to provide detached, content independent strategy training have been moderately successful. Learners sometimes rebel against strategy training that is not sufficiently linked to their own language training. When strategy training is integrated with language learning, learners understand better how the strategies can be used in significant, meaningful context. Meaningfulness makes it easier to remember the strategies. However, it is also necessary to show learners how to transfer the strategies to new tasks, outside of the immediate ones. Step 4: Consider Motivational Issues Consider the kind of motivation teachers will build into a training program. Decide whether to give grades or partial course credit for attainment of new strategy. If learners have gone through a strategy assessment phase, their interest in strategies is likely to be heightened. If a teacher explains how using a good strategy can make language learning easier, students will be more interested in participating strategy training. Another way to increase motivation is to let learners have some say in selecting the language activities or tasks they will use, or let them choose strategies they will learn. Language teachers need to be sensitive to learners original strategy preferences and the motivation that propels these preferences. This means that teachers should phase in very new strategies gently and gradually, without whisking away students security blankets. Step 5: Prepare Materials and Activities The materials that can be used for strategy training are handouts or handbook. Learners can also develop a strategy handbook themselves. They can contribute to it incrementally, as they learn new strategies that prove successful to them. Step 6: Conduct Completely Informed Training Make a special point to inform the learners as completely as possible about why the strategies are important and how they can be used in new situations. Learners need to be given explicit opportunity to evaluate the success of their new strategies and exploring the reasons why theses strategies might have helped. Research shows that strategy training which fully informs the learners, by indicating why the strategy is useful and how it can be transferred to different tasks, is more successful than training that does not. Most learners perform best with completely informed training (Brown et al., 1980a). In the very rare instances, when informed training proves impossible, more subtle training techniques might be necessary. For example, when learners are through cultural influences, new strategies need to be camouflaged or introduced very gradually, paired with strategies the learners already know and prefer. Step 7: Evaluate the Strategy Training Learners own comments about their strategy use are part of the training itself. These self assessments provide practice with the strategies of self monitoring and self evaluating, during and after the training, own observations are useful for evaluating the success of strategy training. Possible criteria for evaluating training are task improvement, general skill improvement, maintenance of the new strategy, transfer of strategy to other relevant tasks and improvement in learners attitude. Step 8: Revise the Strategy Training The evaluation phase (Step 7) will suggest possible revisions. This leads right back to Step 1, a reconsideration of the characteristics and needs of the learners in light of the cycle of strategy training that has just occurred. How to Integrate LLSI into Language Classroom? LLSI may be integrated by teachers into their daily language classroom. LLSI is needed to enhance listening, speaking, reading, or writing course in language learning and teaching. There are three steps in implementing LLSI in the classroom according to Clouston (1997). Step 1 : Study your teaching context Step 2: Focus on LLS in your teaching Step 3: Reflect and encourage learner reflection Step 1: Study Your Teaching Context By observing students behaviour in class, teachers will be able to see what LLS they are using. Talking to students informally before or after class, or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about ones students, their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being taught. Teachers should study their own teaching methods and overall classroom style. One way to do so is to look at their lesson plans and identify if they have incorporated various ways that students can learn the language (Cloustan 1997). Step 2: Focus on LLS in Your Teaching Focus on specific LLS in your regular teaching that are relevant to your learners, your materials, and your own teaching style. LLS may be used in learning to write or in writing, and filling in the gaps with other LLS for writing that are neglected in the text but would be especially relevant for your learners. Provide students with opportunities to use and develop their LLS and to encourage more independent language learning both in class and in out-of-class activities for your course (Gardner and Miller 1996). Step 3: Reflect and Encourage Learner Reflection In implementing LLSI, purposeful teacher reflection and encouraging learner reflection form a necessary third step. On a basic level, it is useful for teachers to reflect on their own positive and negative experiences in language learning. After each class, one might reflect on the effectiveness of the lesson and the role of LLSI within it. In addition to the teachers own reflections, it is essential to encourage learner reflection, both during and after the LLSI in the class (Cloustan 1997). Conclusion When including strategies based instruction in a second language curriculum, it is important to choose an instructional model that introduces the strategies to the students and raises awareness of their learning preferences; teaches them to identify, practice, evaluate, and transfer strategies to new learning situations; and promotes learner autonomy to enable students to continue their learning after they leave the language classroom (Cohen, 2003). It is important that learning strategies research continue, both in these and other directions, for only through a better understanding of the learning and teaching process can more language learners achieve the level of success that currently characterizes only a small proportion of all students studying a second or foreign language around the world. Language learning strategy instruction can contribute to the development of learner mastery and autonomy and increased teacher expertise, but additional research in specific language learning contexts is essential to realizing its potential to enhance second language acquisition and instruction.

Hindu Wedding Ceremony Essay -- Descriptive Wedding Hindu Culture Essa

Hindu Wedding Ceremony Introduction The tradition Vedic wedding ceremony is about four thousand years old. The ceremony is a religious occasion solemnized in accordance with the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of the Hindus. It is a collection of rituals performed by the bride’s parents. Each steps in the ceremony has symbolic philosophical and spiritual meaning. The Maharaj (priest) conducts the ceremony by chanting Mantras (bridal altar). The ceremony is performed in Sanskrit, the most ancient surviving language.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lagna, the marriage, is performed to unite two souls so firmly that after marriage although their bodied remain separate, their souls merge and become harmonious. They become spiritually one. Swagatam (Welcoming the Groom) Jay arrives amid much celebration with his family and friends at the doorsteps. Hiral’s mother welcomes Jay and asks him if is prepared to make the life long commitment and is ready to deal with the bittersweet experience that marriage will present in the future. He is then asked to brake a clay pot filled with curd, honey, ghee (clarified butter) and cottonseeds. The clay pot represent the world and the materials symbolize the different experience he will encounter in the journey of life ahead. Hiral’s mother then leads him to the Mandap (bridal altar) where the wedding ceremony will take place. Ganesh Puja, Kalash and Navagraha (Invocation to Lord Ganesh)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The wedding ceremony begins with the worship of lord ganesh, the remover of all obstacles. Hiral’s parents attend the ceremony with jay, and the Maharaj (Priest) guides the rituals. The kalash (pot) contains sacred waters with coconut and flowers symbolizing the universe. Prayers are rendered to the kalash. This portion of the ceremony represents the worship of five basic elements; earth, air, fire, water and sky. The Navagraha (the nine planets of the solar system) are involved for their blessing. Kanyagaman And Manglashtak   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hiral is brought to the Mandap by her maternal uncle(kanyagaman).A white curtain, antarpata ( a symbol of traditional barriers) is held between the couple. The bride’s relative (Mangalashtak) chant blessings. The curtain is then removed and Hiral and Jay exchange garlands. Madhuparka, Kanyadaan, and Hastamelap (Giving Away of the bride and joining of the Hands)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hiral’s father offers jay ghee and curd... ...a necklace made of sacred black beads (Mangal Sutra), signifying his abiding love, integrity and devotion. Then he places sindoor, a reddish powder in her hair. The priest then blesses the wedding ring and the couple exchanges them. These acts represent Hiral and Jay’s new status as a married woman and man. Kansar Bhojan (Nourishing the relationship)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jay and Hiral feed each other four times with sweets, signifying their pledge to love and care for each other, and accept the blessing to have a harmonious marriage. Khand Saubhagyavati (Blessing from the married women)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hiral and Jay now seek the blessing of their parents and their elderly relatives by bowing to their feet (ashirvaad). Married women form the bride’s side bless the couple by whispering â€Å"saubhagyavati Bhav†(blessing for abiding martial happiness)into the bride’s right ear. Then seek blessing from relatives and friends. Vidaai (Farewell)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last ritual of the ceremony is a touching and emotional farewell to the daughter. Hiral now begins her new role as a wife and as a member of the Warner family. She throws a fistful of rice, so that the house of her children remains prosperous and happy.

Behavioral Outcomes in Abused Children Essay -- Effects of Child Abuse

The research at present was done to discover what types of behaviors are presented by abused children. Research has shown that there are not specific behaviors that an abused child will exhibit. However, there are certain behaviors that can be watched for by parents, caregivers, and other adults. These behaviors may be shown in the form of a problem child or the opposite in a quiet isolated child. The Effects of Child Abuse on Behavior Many people assume that there are specific behaviors associated with a child who is or has been abused. However, research shows that there are many different behaviors such children may exhibit. These behaviors are usually from one end of the spectrum or the other. However, no matter the type of behavior displayed by the child the abuse is very destructive to the child in many ways; psychologically and biologically. Their future will hold many problems in learning, emotions, and behavior (Brassard et al., 2009). It is important to remember that just because a child shows the same behaviors as an abused child does not mean that the child has been abused. Research being done on these behaviors only gives explanation of the behaviors but they are not certain to occur. Much research being completed is to help teachers, doctors, and others that work with children on a daily basis something to look for when child abuse is suspected. Each study that has been accomplished explains different behaviors and the reasons for them. These behaviors can manifest two main types of children; the problem child or the isolated child. Types of Abuse There are four main types of abuse; physical, sexual, psychological, and neglect. Physical or biological abuse is when violent actions are imposed to a child by th... ...onmgr14&vid=7&hid=18 Relich, R., Giblin, P. T., Starr, R. H., Jr, & Agronow, S. J. (1980). Motor and social behavior in abused and control children: observations of parent-child interactions. The Journal of Psychology, 106, 193-204. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.mc.edu:2054/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=10&hid=18&sid=ecc52210-ab37-4879-91fb-601063008a50%40sessionmgr14 Sim, L., Friedrich, W. N., Davies, W. H., Trentham, B., Lengua, L., & Pithers, W. (2005, December ). The child behavior checklist as an indicator of posttraumatic stress disorder and dissociation in normative, psyhiatric, and sexually abused children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 697-705. Retrieved from www.ebscohost.com Vandenberg, B., & Marsh, U. (2009). Aggression in youths: child abuse, gender, and SES. North American Journal of Psychology, 11, 437-442. Retrieved from www.ebscohost.com

Parliamentary Reform between 1830 and 1832 in Great Britain Essay

There were many reasons why between 1830 and 1832 parliamentary reform became a big and unyielding issue on the political landscape. The industrial revolution was in full swing, discontent was rife and consequently revolutionary ideas were materialising. But how did the parliamentary reform gain momentum and become such a significant matter among so many other pressing conflicts and issues? The Tory party were in office prior to parliamentary reform and for years they had time and again strenuously refused to widen the electorate, arguing what made the British political system so very successful was due to the fact that their was more emphasis on the landowning than the sheer numbers of electorate. The Tory party dominated British politics with the support of royals such as George III and George IV. However, by 1830 divisions in the party began to form and came to prominence. The cause of these divisions was the issue of Roman Catholic Emancipation which led to Tory hardliners threatening to support reform in order to ensure a wider electorate that would throw out any idea of emancipation with fervour. This split in the Tory government eventual became so bitter that the Tory government eventually collapsed in November 1830. Simultaneously, the Whig party were facing a resurgence of support and fortune. The Whig party were keener on the idea of cautious reform and believed that through reform key aspects of the political system had to be preserved. Such democratic ideas were bourn from Whig MPs who were more in tune with society at the time since some MPs were not from aristocrat families but from the middle classes- those at the forefront of the industrial revolution. Previously, the Whigs had attempted at sponsoring reform ... ...During this time a closer relationship was built between the middle and working class. The trigger for this new partnership was a Birmingham banker by the name of Thomas Attwood. Attwood created the group General Political Union which campaigned for reform. This was an example of a flourishing pressure group by raising the profile of their cause through petitions, rallies and peaceful protest. Grey however had the intention of splitting this alliance by promising the middle classes moderate reform. Overall, the most important reason for parliamentary reform becoming a promising issue was because of the collapse of the Tory government. Without the collapse of the Tory government the consequential events could not have occurred such as the Whig party gaining momentum and support from the people of Britain which eventually led to the out-dated system being reformed.

Assess the Argument That Modern Childhood Is a ‘March of Progress‘

The march of progress, traditionally depicting a compressed presentation of 25 million years of human evolution, can be applied to sociologists view on childhood- is it ‘evolving’ for the better? The ‘March of progress’ view argues that, over the past few centuries, childhood in western societies has been improving steadily, and is even better than ever today. We can then go onto say that the ‘march of progress’ evidently paints a bad picture of the past; as Lloyd De Mause puts it- â€Å"The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of childcare, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorised and sexually abused. † Writers like Aries and Shorter look on from this dark past, and hold to the belief that children are more valued, better cared for, protected & educated, enjoy better health and have a lot more rights than previous generations. On the other hand, certain sociologists would disagree with this; for example, Sue Palmers. Her view uplifts the concept of â€Å"The Five Finger Exercise†; the belief that ‘language, love, education, play & discipline’ are what children crucially need for healthy development. In her opinion, children in the UK today are going through, what she calls, ‘toxic childhood’- in the past 25 years, children’s physical, emotional and academic development have been effected and damaged by rapid technological and cultural changes. These ‘changes’ include emphasis on testing in education, computer games, junk food, intensive marketing on children, even the long hours parents work. All of these factors (which weren’t as dominant in society, in the past) have negative effects i. e. an increase in child obesity. Neil Postman has a similar negative opinion on childhood- he stated that childhood is ‘disappearing at a dazzling speed’. In contrast to Palmers opinion that children are being affected by rapid technological and cultural changes, Postman believes the disappearance of childhood is down to young people being given the same rights as adults. Similarities in the way children and adults dress, the decrease of traditional unsupervised games, ven rare cases of children committing ‘adults crimes’, such as murder. Also, as education intensifies, young people will be able to enter the adult world at an earlier age, rapidly increasing the disappearance of childhood. Though Iona Opie argues that this is not true that childhood is not disappearing; she believes there is still evidence that childhood culture exists, based on a lifetime of research into children’s games, rhymes and songs (led by herself and her husband, Peter Opie). Contradictory to Postman’s findings, Opie came to the conclusion that children can, and do, create their own independent culture which is separate from that of adults. Child liberations argue against both Palmers and Postman- they argue that western ideas of childhood are being globalised (far from disappearing). International humanitarian and welfare agencies have imposed western norms on the world, of what childhood should be- a separate life stage, based in the nuclear family and school, where children are innocent, dependant & vulnerable and have no economic role. Therefore, childhood is far from disappearing, but western notions are simply being globalised. For example, anti child labour campaigns, or concerns about ‘street children’ in less economically developed countries, reflect western ideas of what childhood is ‘ought’ to be like. Though this kind of activity could be the norm for children in that specific culture; possibly important preparation for adult life in their society. So in this view, childhood isn’t ‘disappearing’, but it is spreading across the world.

History of computing Essay

Way back in early history, when people relied mainly on their brains to perform calculations, people used their fingers, pebbles, and tally sticks for computing purposes. Various attempts were made to build general-purpose programmable computers from the same mechanical devices used in calculators. But the problems posed by the lack of technology at the time were not satisfactorily solved until the introduction of electronic computing techniques in the mid-20th century. Between Pascal’s invention and around 1820 there were about 25 manufacturers of calculating machines; most of them were the work of one man. Few of them worked correctly and even less actually reached the manufacturing line. In the mid-19th century Charles Babbage, a visionary British mathematician at Cambridge University, designed the first computers to perform multistep operations automatically. The technologies were entirely mechanical. He called this first computing machine the Difference Engine, and it was intended to compute and print mathematical tables automatically. The Difference Engine performed only one arithmetic operation: addition. Babbage constructed a small portion of his first Difference Engine in 1832, which served as a demonstration prototype. The first widely known general-purpose electronic computer was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) that John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert built at the University of Pennsylvania. The primary motivation for the ENIAC was the need to construct ballistic tables for the U. S. Army. Work began on the ENIAC in 1943 and in 1946 it was completed. It was an enormous machine weighing about 30 tons and filling a 30 by 50 foot room. It contained 1,500 electromechanical relays and over 18,000 vacuum tubes and when it was switched on it consumed 150,000 watts of energy. Despite its enormous size it stored only the equivalent of 80 characters of information. However, it was substantially faster than any previous computer. The idea of storing programs and their data in the same high-speed memory – the stored-program concept – was first put forth by von Neumann in a publication entitled, â€Å"First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC† (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer). The IAS machine in its overall design is quite modern, and can be regarded as the prototype of most subsequent general-purpose computers. It had the general structure depicted in Figure 4. It had a CPU (Central Processing Unit) for executing instructions, a main memory for storing active programs, a secondary memory for backup storage, and miscellaneous input-output equipment. The IBM PC series was introduced in 1981 and quickly became the de facto standard for this class of machine. IBM made a smart decision by making the architecture of the PC open, meaning its design specifications were available to other manufacturers of computers and software. As a result of this decision the IBM PC became very popular and many versions of it, PC clones, were produced by others. Many other significant achievements have occurred in the PC era and continue to occur with the widespread use of the Internet and networked computers. Here are a few other notable historical achievements having to do with PC’s: o 1976 – The Cray 1 Supercomputer was the first commercially developed supercomputer. It contained 200,000 IC’s and was cooled by Freon. o 1977 – Apple II computer introduced. o 1979 – Commodore Pet released, with 1 MHz computing power, 8K RAM, cassette deck, and 9†³ monitor displaying monochrome text. o 1979 – The compact disk was invented. o 1982 – The TCP/IP network communications protocol was established and the â€Å"Internet† was formed as a connected set of networks using TCP/IP. o 1982 – Commodore 64 released, costing just i 595. o 1982 – Compaq releases their IBM PC compatible, the Compaq Portable. o 1983 – The IBM XT is released. This machine had a 10MB hard disk, 128KB of RAM, one floppy drive, a mono monitor, and a printer, all for i5000. What a bargain! o 1984 – Apple Macintosh released. o 1985 – Microsoft Windows launched, but not really widely used until version 3 in 1990. o 1987 – IBM introduced its PS/2 System which was very successful, selling over 2 million machines in less than 2 years. o 1989 – The World Wide Web (WWW) is invented by Tim Berners-Lee who saw the need for global information exchange that would allow physicists to collaborate on research. The Web was a result of the integration of hypertext and the Internet. Hyperlinked pages could not only provide information but could provide transparent access to other pages of information as well as other Internet facilities such as ftp, telnet, Gopher, WAIS, and USENET. The Web started out as a text-only interface but NCSA Mosaic, an early browser, later presented a graphical interface for it and its popularity exploded as it became accessible to the novice user. The explosion of the Web started in earnest during 1993 and in a single year Web traffic increased by 300,000%. o 1990 – Windows 3. 0 introduced by Microsoft. This graphical user interface OS offered true multi-tasking, meaning you could run multiple programs at the same time. o 1993 – The Pentium microprocessor released by Intel. It was only available at that time in 60 and 66 MHz versions. o 1995 – Windows 95 operating system released by Microsoft. o 1995 – Pentium Pro microprocessor released. o 1997 – Pentium MMX (166 and 200 MHz) released. o 1997 – Pentium II (233, 266, and 300 MHz) released. o 1998 – Windows 98 released. o 1999 – Linux, a free alternative operating system to Microsoft’s Windows, is estimated to be running on over 10 million computers worldwide.